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APPENDIX A: ABOUT THE DATA All data presented in this report are Housing Assistance Council (HAC) calculations using microdata from the 1995 AHS, unless otherwise stated. AHS Data and Sampling Error The American Housing Survey (AHS) is conducted every two years by the Bureau of the Census for the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 1995, interviewers obtained information for a nationwide sample of almost 46,000 housing units occupied year-round. Like any sample, the AHS is subject to errors from sampling and errors from other causes (such as incomplete data and wrong answers). For an extensive discussion of AHS methodology and possible errors, see the appendices to the published American Housing Survey book. 41 Because of the sampling errors and other possible errors inherent in the AHS, readers are cautioned not to rely on small differences in percentages or numbers presented in this report. The reliability of the data decreases as the sample size decreases. In 1995, the national sample was not quite 46,000 housing units, the rural sample was less than 16,000, and the sample for any given rural population group–households with children or households receiving welfare income, for example–was smaller still. The AHS is intended to count occupied housing units, and therefore households, so most of the data presented in this report is for households rather than families. (For definitions, see below.) This unit-focused methodology also means that the AHS does not include homeless persons. AHS data is known to differ from information collected by other surveys. For example, the Census Bureau notes that, historically, the AHS underreports income and overreports poverty when compared with the Current Population Survey, and both surveys underreport income and overreport poverty when compared with tax returns and national income accounts. Geographic Terms This report does not use the Census’s definition of “rural,” which refers specifically to either open country or places with fewer than 2,500 residents. Instead, HAC’s definition corresponds to the Census Bureau’s “outside urbanized areas” definition. This definition aggregates “other urban” places and Census-defined “rural” places in both metro and nonmetro areas into a definition of rural areas that includes not only open country and towns with less than 2,500 people, but also larger towns, so long as they are outside densely populated areas of 50,000 population. HAC’s definition of rural areas approaches, but is not identical to, the definition used by the Rural Housing Service (RHS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to determine eligibility for rural housing programs. USDA-defined “rural” areas include open country that is not part of or associated with an urban area. Also included is any town, village, city or place, including a place that is not part of or associated with an urban area but immediately adjacent to a densely settled area, with a population not in excess of 10,000 and rural in character. Such a place may be either in an MSA or in a nonmetro area. In addition, a nonmetro place with a population in excess of 10,000 but not in excess of 20,000 is eligible if it has a serious lack of mortgage credit as determined by the Departments of Agriculture and Housing and Urban Development. It should be noted that the AHS uses areas defined by the 1980 (not 1990) Census for urban, rural, farm and nonfarm determinations, while AHS metropolitan and nonmetropolitan designations are those defined by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) as of 1983. This usage has the advantage of being able to measure change over time within constant boundaries, but the disadvantage of being out of date. A small portion of the households classified as rural using the 1995 AHS data probably would have been in urbanized areas if definitions based on 1990 Census data had been used. This report’s information on percent of area median income is based on estimates prepared by HUD for each household in the 1995 AHS sample, provided to HAC by the Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies. For all places outside of large identified metropolitan areas, including almost all of the area we have defined as rural, HUD’s median income estimates are averaged over all places in the same Census region that are in the same climate zone. Household & Housing Characteristics The AHS defines a “household” as the group of individuals occupying a housing unit. A “family” consists of a householder and all other persons living in the same household who are related to the householder by blood, marriage, or adoption. A household may consist of a family, no family (i.e., one or more single unrelated individuals), or more than one family. The “householder” (sometimes called the “head of household”) is the household member 18 years old or over who is the owner or renter of the sampled housing unit. Cost Burden Housing “cost burdens” are generally measured as a percentage of income, on what has become a slowly sliding scale. In the early days of the public housing program, housing costs above 20 percent of income were considered burdensome. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, 25 percent of income became the dividing line. In the early 1980s, the cost burden threshold was raised to 30 percent of income. Since then, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has defined moderate cost burdens as those between 30 percent and 50 percent of income, and severe cost burdens as those above 50 percent of income. Percent of income paid for housing is, at best, a rough measure of affordability, but its use has become widespread for several reasons. First, it is relatively simple to grasp and to calculate. Second, 30 percent of income has become the norm that housing subsidy programs require households living in subsidized housing to pay. Housing Problems The AHS defines physical housing problems as severe or moderate. A unit has severe physical problems (is severely inadequate) if it has any of the following five problems: Plumbing. Lacking hot or cold piped water or a flush toilet, or lacking both bathtub and shower, all inside the structure for the exclusive use of the unit. Heating. Having been uncomfortably cold last winter for 24 hours or more because the heating equipment broke down, and it broke down at least three times last winter for at least 6 hours each time. Electric. Having no electricity, or all of the following three electric problems: exposed wiring; a room with no working wall outlet; and three blown fuses or tripped circuit breakers in the last 90 days. Upkeep. Having any five of the following six maintenance problems: water leaks from the outside, such as from the roof, basement, windows, or doors; leaks from inside structure such as pipes or plumbing fixtures; holes in the floors; holes or open cracks in the walls or ceilings; more than 8 inches by 11 inches of peeling paint or broken plaster; or signs of rats or mice in the last 90 days. Hallways. Having all of the following four problems in public areas: no working light fixtures; loose or missing steps; loose or missing railings; and no elevator. A unit has moderate physical problems (is moderately inadequate) if it has any of the following five problems, but none of the severe problems. Plumbing. On at least three occasions during the last 3 months or while the household was living in the unit if less than 3 months, all the flush toilets were broken down at the same time for 6 hours or more. Heating. Having unvented gas, oil or kerosene heaters as the primary heating equipment. Upkeep. Having any three or four of the overall list of six upkeep problems mentioned above under severe physical problems. Hallways. Having any three of the four hallway problems mentioned above under severe physical problems. Kitchen. Lacking a kitchen sink, refrigerator, or burners inside the structure for the exclusive use of the unit. 42 Crowding A crowded unit is one where there is more than one person per room. Worst Case Housing Needs This report uses the same definition of “Worst Case Housing Needs” as established by HUD. 43 Worst case households are those that:
Due to minor computational differences, HAC’s estimate of the number of rural U.S. households experiencing worst case needs is approximately 100,000 fewer than HUD’s estimate. Three questions from the AHS were utilized to determine whether a household receives Federal housing assistance: (1) Is the building owned by a public housing authority? (2) Does the Federal Government pay some cost of the unit? (3) Do the people living here have to report the household’s income to someone every year so they can set the rent? If respondents answered “yes” to any of the three they were counted as receiving federal housing assistance. Households living in severely inadequate housing were identified if they experienced any one of five problems with plumbing, heating, electric, upkeep, or hallways, listed above in the Housing Problems section.
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